The field of the invention is ultrasound imaging methods and systems. More specifically, the field of the invention is ultrasonic nondestructive techniques for imaging the roughness of a surface.
There are a number of modes in which ultrasound can be used to produce images of objects. The ultrasound transmitter may be placed on one side of the object and the sound transmitted through the object to the ultrasound receiver placed on the other side (“transmission mode”). With transmission mode methods, an image may be produced in which the brightness of each pixel is a function of the amplitude of the ultrasound that reaches the receiver (“attenuation” mode), or the brightness of each pixel is a function of the time required for the sound to reach the receiver (“time-of-flight” or “speed of sound” mode). In the alternative, the receiver may be positioned on the same side of the object as the transmitter and an image may be produced in which the brightness of each pixel is a function of the amplitude or time-of-flight of the ultrasound reflected from the object back to the receiver (“refraction”, “backscatter”, or “echo” mode).
There are a number of well known backscatter methods for acquiring ultrasound data. In the so-called “A-scan” method, an ultrasound pulse is directed into the object by the transducer and the amplitude of the reflected sound is recorded over a period of time. The amplitude of the echo signal is proportional to the scattering strength of the refractors in the object and the time delay is proportional to the range of the refractors from the transducer. In the so-called “B-scan” method, the transducer transmits a series of ultrasonic pulses as it is scanned across the object along a single axis of motion. The resulting echo signals are recorded as with the A-scan method and either their amplitude or time delay is used to modulate the brightness of pixels on a display. With the B-scan method, enough data are acquired from which an image of the refractors can be reconstructed.
Ultrasonic transducers for medical applications are constructed from one or more piezoelectric elements sandwiched between a pair of electrodes. Such piezoelectric elements are typically constructed of lead zirconate titanate (PZT), polyvinylidene diflouride (PVDF), or PZT ceramic/polymer composite. The electrodes are connected to a voltage source, and when a voltage is applied, the piezoelectric elements change in size at a frequency corresponding to that of the applied voltage. When a voltage pulse is applied, the piezoelectric element emits an ultrasonic wave into the media to which it is coupled at the frequencies contained in the excitation pulse. Conversely, when an ultrasonic wave strikes the piezoelectric element, the element produces a corresponding voltage across its electrodes. Typically, the front of the element is covered with an acoustic matching layer that improves the coupling with the media in which the ultrasonic waves propagate. In addition, a backing material is disposed to the rear of the piezoelectric element to absorb ultrasonic waves that emerge from the back side of the element so that they do not interfere. A number of such ultrasonic transducer constructions are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,217,684; 4,425,525; 4,441,503; 4,470,305 and 4,569,231.
When used for ultrasound imaging, the transducer typically has a number of piezoelectric elements arranged in an array and driven with separate voltages (apodizing). By controlling the time delay (or phase) and amplitude of the applied voltages, the ultrasonic waves produced by the piezoelectric elements (transmission mode) combine to produce a net ultrasonic wave focused at a selected point. By controlling the time delay and amplitude of the applied voltages, this focal point can be moved in a plane to scan the subject.
The same principles apply when the transducer is employed to receive the reflected sound (receiver mode). That is, the voltages produced at the transducer elements in the array are summed together such that the net signal is indicative of the sound reflected from a single focal point in the subject. As with the transmission mode, this focused reception of the ultrasonic energy is achieved by imparting separate time delay (and/or phase shifts) and gains to the signal from each transducer array element.
This form of ultrasonic imaging is referred to as “phased array sector scanning”, or “PASS”. Such a scan is comprised of a series of measurements in which the steered ultrasonic wave is transmitted, the system switches to receive mode after a short time interval, and the reflected ultrasonic wave is received and stored. Typically, the transmission and reception are steered in the same direction (θ) during each measurement to acquire data from a series of points along a scan line. The receiver is dynamically focused at a succession of ranges (R) along the scan line as the reflected ultrasonic waves are received. The time required to conduct the entire scan is a function of the time required to make each measurement and the number of measurements required to cover the entire region of interest at the desired resolution and signal-to-noise ratio. For example, a total of 128 scan lines may be acquired over a 90 degree sector, with each scan line being steered in increments of 0.70 degrees. A number of such ultrasonic imaging systems are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,155,258; 4,155,260; 4,154,113; 4,155,259; 4,180,790; 4,470,303; 4,662,223; 4,669,314 and 4,809,184.
Vibroacoustography is an elasticity modality that vibrates tissue using ultrasound radiation force. The radiation force is generated by focusing two ultrasound beams on the object. These two ultrasound beams have slightly different frequencies and the tissue at the focal point vibrates at an acoustic force frequency equal to the difference, or beat, frequency. The acoustic force frequency can be easily changed. The tissue is scanned in a raster manner and its acoustic emission is detected by a hydrophone. The acquired emission data may be processed to reconstruct an image, which is related to. The details of vibroacoustography are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,903,516 and 5,991,239.
Ultrasound has found wide usage not only in the field of medical imaging, but also in the field of the nondestructive testing (NDT) of objects for defects such as cracking and corrosion. NDT is employed for many different industrial applications, including testing aerospace construction materials for microstructural cracks, assessing the quality of welds, and determining the presence of cracks in microelectronics.
Coronal scan (C-scan) ultrasound imaging in the frequency range of 0.1-100 MHz is employed in NDT techniques to obtain images of the surface roughness of an object. These methods rely on acquiring ultrasound waves that interact with the surface of the object under investigation. More specifically, these techniques are based on the evaluation of the scattered or reflected ultrasound waves measured by an ultrasonic transducer. While useful for NDT, these conventional ultrasound methods have a number of disadvantages. First, they are unable to image surface roughness of anisotropic materials and thick layered structures. Furthermore, they do not produce high resolution images at audio frequencies, and they require very complex signal processing methods to produce an image.
Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) is another NDT method that employs ultrasound, and is one that is used in microelectronics industries. Like the C-scan method, SAM works by directing focused sound from an ultrasonic transducer to a selected point on a test object. Scattering or reflected ultrasound waves are then measured in order to produce an image of the object under examination. The focused ultrasound beam is then moved over the surface of the test object until the entire surface has been assessed. The resolution of the produced image is determined by the frequency of the ultrasound beam. Thus, frequencies in the gigahertz range are often times employed when examining microelectronics so that high resolution images can be produced. While the SAM method provides higher spatial resolution than the C-scan method, it presents a problem of heating, and thus possibly damaging, the object resultant from the high frequency focused ultrasound employed in SAM techniques. Furthermore, the higher frequency ultrasound waves are more likely to be absorbed and attenuated by the object being tested, thus decreasing the efficiency of the imaging process.